The Constitution.

The Republic's founding declaration — Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic; Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.

• Adopted on 26th November 1949, Enacted on 26th January 1950
• 'Socialist' and 'Secular' added by 42nd Amendment (1976)
• Interpreted in Kesavananda Bharati as a part of the Constitution
• Used by courts to interpret ambiguous constitutional provisions

Defines India as a Union of States. Parliament can alter state names, boundaries, and create new states.

• India is a 'Union of States' — not a federation (no right to secede)
• Parliament can form new states or alter boundaries by simple majority
• Schedule I lists all 28 states and 8 Union Territories
• Bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh (2014) and J&K reorganization (2019)

Provisions relating to citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution. Parliament governs citizenship by law.

• Citizenship Act 1955 governs acquisition and termination of citizenship
• Single citizenship — unlike the USA's dual (state & national) citizenship
• Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2019 grants citizenship to non-Muslim minorities from 3 countries
• Art. 11: Parliament has plenary power to make citizenship laws

Justiciable rights guaranteed to every person against state action — the bedrock of India's constitutional democracy.

• 6 categories: Equality, Freedom, Against Exploitation, Religion, Cultural-Educational, Constitutional Remedies
• Art. 32: Right to Constitutional Remedies — 'Heart & Soul of the Constitution' (Ambedkar)
• Can be suspended only during National Emergency (Art. 352)
• Art. 20, 21 cannot be suspended even in emergency

Non-justiciable guidelines for governance — the socioeconomic conscience of the Constitution.

• Cannot be enforced by courts, but fundamental in governance
• 3 categories: Socialistic, Gandhian, Liberal-Intellectual
• Mineva Mills (1980) — balance between FRs and DPSPs is basic feature
• Art. 44: Uniform Civil Code — yet to be implemented

11 duties of every citizen — not directly enforceable but guide courts and shape legislation.

• Added by 42nd Amendment (1976), 11th duty added by 86th Amendment (2002)
• Inspired by the Constitution of the USSR
• Not enforceable by writ, but courts refer to them in interpretation
• Verma Committee (1999) called for their embodiment in laws

Structure of the Union Government: President, VP, PM, Council of Ministers, Parliament, Supreme Court, CAG.

• President is constitutional head — PM is real executive (Art. 74, 75)
• Parliament: Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha + President
• Supreme Court: Art. 124–147 — original, appellate and advisory jurisdiction
• Financial Emergency (Art. 360) — never been invoked

Mirror of Part V for states — Governor, CM, State Legislature, High Courts.

• Governor is nominal head — CM is real executive
• Governor's discretionary powers — S.R. Bommai (1994) limited misuse
• State Legislature: Vidhan Sabha (+ Vidhan Parishad in 6 states)
• Art. 200/201: Governor can reserve bills for President's consideration

Three types of emergencies that fundamentally alter the federal structure temporarily.

• Art. 352: National Emergency (external aggression/armed rebellion) — invoked 3 times
• Art. 356: President's Rule (State Emergency) — applied 100+ times, currently in Ladakh
• Art. 360: Financial Emergency — never invoked
• 44th Amendment: 'Internal disturbance' replaced by 'armed rebellion'

Parliament's power to amend the Constitution — subject to the Basic Structure Doctrine.

• Three modes: Simple majority, Special majority, Special majority + state ratification
• Kesavananda Bharati (1973): Basic Structure cannot be amended
• 42nd Amendment (1976) has been called the 'Mini-Constitution'
• 104th Amendment (2020): Extended SC/ST reservations in legislature by 10 years